Cellulitis presents with an acute onset of red, painful, hot, swollen, and tender skin, with possible blister or bullae formation. The leg is the most commonly affected site, presentation is usually unilateral. Often (but not always) associated with a break in the skin (portal entry).
If patient afebrile and tolerating oral antibiotics, can be managed in primary care. Caution with immunocompromised patients.
Most children with cellulitis or impetigo do not require skin swabs sent, unless portal of entry, extensive infection, not responding to treatment or recurrent episodes. If recurrent or severe staph aureus infection, consider requesting PVL testing.
For limited impetigo, use topical Abs (fusidin 2% cream or mupirocin 2% ointment ) tds for 7 days.
If mild/moderate infection, Cefalexin for 5 days. Dose per actual body weight (12.5mg/kg 8 hourly (max 1g per dose)) or using age bands (3-11 months: 125mg tds, 1 year - 4 years: 250mg tds, 5-11 years: 500mg tds, ≥12 years: 1 gram tds)
If facial cellulitis, Co-amoxiclav tds for 5 days. For child 1 years - 5 years: co-amoxiclav 125/31 5ml tds' 6-11 years: co-amoxiclav 250/62 5ml tds; 12-17 years: co-amoxiclav tablets (500/125 mg) tds or co-amoxiclav 250/62 10ml tds).
If allergic to penicillin: Azithromycin for 3 days. dose per actual body weight (10mg/kg od) or using weight bands for children aged 6 months - 17 years (15-25kg: 200mg once daily; 26-35kg: 300mg once daily; 36-45kg: 400mg once daily; ≥46kg: 500mg once daily)
Most children with infected eczema do not benefit from antibiotic therapy (oral or topical) - except those with a severe infection. Optimisation of topical steroids is the mainstay of treatment in these patients.
Provide safety netting information (verbal and written).
Note: aim to use an antibiotic that minimises dosing frequency and is palatable (if suspension prescribed) to optimise adherence. QDS penicillin V and flucloxacillin suspensions are not well tolerated by children. It can sometimes be challenging for children to swallow large volumes of suspensions. Most school age children (from above 4 years of age) can be taught to swallow tablets. The following website provides great information for parents on teaching their child to swallow tables - www.pillswallowing.com
References
1. Dillon HC Jr. Treatment of staphylococcal skin infections: a comparison of cephalexin and dicloxacillin. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1983 Feb;8(2):177-81.
2. Aboltins CA et al. Oral versus parenteral antimicrobials for the treatment of cellulitis: a randomized non-inferiority trial. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015 Feb;70(2):581-6.
3. Baguley D, Lim E, Bevan A, Pallet A and Faust SN. Prescribing for children – taste and palatability affect adherence to antibiotics: a review Archives of Disease in Childhood 2012;97:293-297
4. Falagas ME, Karagiannis AKA, Nakouti T, Tansarli GS. Compliance with Once-Daily versus Twice or Thrice-Daily Administration of Antibiotic Regimens: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(1):e0116207. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116207.
5. Bielicki JA, Barker CI, Saxena S, Wong IC, Long PF, Sharland M. Not too little, not too much: problems of selecting oral antibiotic dose for children. BMJ. 2015 Nov 3;351:h5447.
6. Malhotra-Kumar S, Lammens C, Coenen S, Van Herck K, Goossens H. Effect of azithromycin and clarithromycin therapy on pharyngeal carriage of macrolide-resistant streptococci in healthy volunteers: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Lancet. 2007 Feb 10;369(9560):482-90.
7. Dancer SJ. Attention prescribers: be careful with antibiotics. Lancet. 2007 Feb 10;369(9560):442-3.
8. Koning S et al. Interventions for impetigo. Cochrane database of systematic reviews 2012.
Click here for a link to South Central Antimicrobial Network Guidelines for Antibiotic Prescribing in the Community 2018.
Click here for tips for antibiotic prescribing in children and the rationale for the changes in the 2018 guidelines.
Usually no treatment required; viral cause most likely (adenovirus, enterovirus, occasionally herpes simplex). Consider ophthalmia neonatorum in a neonate; this does not refer to a simple "sticky eye" in a neonate and requires urgent review in hospital
Consider chloramphenicol eye drops and chloramphenicol ointment 1%. Continue until 2 days after symptoms resolved.
Provide safety netting information (written and verbal)
If lymphadenopathy is bilateral, non-erythematous, non-tender, with node size less than 3 cm, and child systemically well, consider no treatment, watchful waiting approach. Low threshold for treatment if child immunocompromised.
If mild/moderate infection, Cefalexin for 7 days. Dose per actual body weight (12.5mg/kg 8 hourly (max 1g per dose)) or using age bands (3-11 months: 125mg tds, 1 year - 4 years: 250mg tds, 5-11 years: 500mg; ≥12 years: 1 gram tds)
1. Baguley D, Lim E, Bevan A, Pallet A and Faust SN. Prescribing for children – taste and palatability affect adherence to antibiotics: a review Archives of Disease in Childhood 2012;97:293-297
2. Bielicki JA, Barker CI, Saxena S, Wong IC, Long PF, Sharland M. Not too little, not too much: problems of selecting oral antibiotic dose for children. BMJ. 2015 Nov 3;351:h5447.
3. Malhotra-Kumar S, Lammens C, Coenen S, Van Herck K, Goossens H. Effect of azithromycin and clarithromycin therapy on pharyngeal carriage of macrolide-resistant streptococci in healthy volunteers: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Lancet. 2007 Feb 10;369(9560):482-90.
4. Dancer SJ. Attention prescribers: be careful with antibiotics. Lancet. 2007 Feb 10;369(9560):442-3.
Cure rates similar at 7 days for topical acetic acid or topical Ab +- steroid.
First line: Acetic acid 2% one spray tds for 7 days (unlicensed use)
Second line: Neomycin with corticosteroid ear drops, three drops tds for 7-14 days
If cellulitis and disease extending outside ear canal, start oral antibiotics based on sensitivities. Empirical treatment with Cefalexin for 5 days. Dose per actual body weight (12.5mg/kg 8 hourly (max 1g per dose)) or using age bands (3-11 months: 125mg tds, 1 year-4 years: 250mg tds, 5-11 years: 500mg tds, ≥12 years: 1 gram tds). If allergic to penicillin/cephalosporins: Azithromycin for 3 days. Dose per actual body weight (10mg/kg od) or using weight bands for children aged 6 months - 17 years (15-25kg: 200mg once daily; 26-35kg: 300mg once daily; 36-45kg: 400mg once daily; ≥46kg: 500mg once daily)
1. Malhotra-Kumar S, Lammens C, Coenen S, Van Herck K, Goossens H. Effect of azithromycin and clarithromycin therapy on pharyngeal carriage of macrolide-resistant streptococci in healthy volunteers: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Lancet. 2007 Feb 10;369(9560):482-90.
2. Dancer SJ. Attention prescribers: be careful with antibiotics. Lancet. 2007 Feb 10;369(9560):442-3.
3. Bielicki JA, Barker CI, Saxena S, Wong IC, Long PF, Sharland M. Not too little, not too much: problems of selecting oral antibiotic dose for children. BMJ. 2015 Nov 3;351:h5447.
4. Baguley D, Lim E, Bevan A, Pallet A and Faust SN. Prescribing for children – taste and palatability affect adherence to antibiotics: a review Archives of Disease in Childhood 2012;97:293-297
5. Falagas ME, Karagiannis AKA, Nakouti T, Tansarli GS. Compliance with Once-Daily versus Twice or Thrice-Daily Administration of Antibiotic Regimens: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(1):e0116207. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116207.
Acute otitis media resolves in 60% by 24 hours without Abs. Abs only marginally reduces pain at 2 days (NNT 15) and does not prevent deafness. Need to treat 4800 with antibiotics to avoid 1 case of mastoiditis.
If ear discharge but systemically well and apyrexial, treat with topical antibiotics (sofradex or neomycin) for 10 days.
Only consider starting oral antibiotics if any of the following criteria are met in a child presenting with AOM (bulging ear drum or discharge):-
In child 6 months - 2 years old:-
First line if antibiotics indicated: Amoxicillin bd for 5 days. Dose per actual body weight (40mg/kg bd (max 1g per dose)) or using age bands (3-11 months: 250mg bd; 1 years - 4 years: 500mg bd; 5-11 years: 750mg bd; ≥12 years: 1 gram bd)
If failed treatment with amoxicillin, Co-amoxiclav tds for 5 days. For children 1-5 years: co-amoxiclav 125/31 5 ml tds; 6-11 years: co-amoxiclav 250/62 5 ml tds; 12-17 years: co-amoxiclav tablets (500/125mg) tds or co-amoxiclav 250/62 10 ml tds)
Note: aim to use an antibiotic that minimises dosing frequency and is palatable (if suspension prescribed) to optimise adherence. QDS penicillin V and flucloxacillin suspensions are not well tolerated by children. It can sometimes be challenging for children to swallow large volumes of suspensions. Most school age children (from above 4 years of age) can be taught to swallow tablets. The following website provides great information for parents on teaching their child to swallow tablets - www.pillswallowing.com
1. NICE, Otitis media (acute): antimicrobial prescribing [NG91], March 2018 https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng91 Date accessed 25.5.18
2. Hoberman A, Paradise JL, Rockette HE, Shaikh N, Wald ER, Kearney DH, et al. Treatment of acute otitis media in children under 2 years of age. N Engl J Med. 2011; 364(2): 105-15. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21226576 Date accessed 25.5.18
3. Thompson PL, Gilbert RE, Long PF, Saxena S, Sharland M, Wong IC. Effect of antibiotics for otitis media on mastoiditis in children: a retrospective cohort study using the United kingdom general practice research database. Pediatrics. 2009; 123(2): 424-30. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19171605 Date accessed 25.5.18
4. Valtonen M, Piippo T, Pitkäjärvi T, Pyykönen ML. Comparison of amoxicillin given two and three times a day in acute respiratory tract infections in children. Scand J Prim Health Care. 1986 Nov;4(4):201-4.
5. Vilas-Boas AL, Fontoura MS, Xavier-Souza G, AraĂºjo-Neto CA, Andrade SC, BrimRV, Noblat L, Barral A, Cardoso MR, Nascimento-Carvalho CM; PNEUMOPAC-Efficacy Study Group. Comparison of oral amoxicillin given thrice or twice daily to children between 2 and 59 months old with non-severe pneumonia: a randomized controlled trial. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014 Jul;69(7):1954-9.
6. Fonseca W, Hoppu K, Rey LC, Amaral J, Qazi S. Comparing pharmacokinetics of amoxicillin given twice or three times per day to children older than 3 months with pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003 Mar;47(3):997-1001.
7. Daschner FD, Behre U, Dalhoff A. Prospective clinical trial on the efficacy of amoxycillin administered twice or four times daily in children with respiratory tract infections. J Int Med Res. 1981;9(4):274-6.
8. WHO - Guidelines for the management of common childhood illnesses. http://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/docum...
9. Baguley D, Lim E, Bevan A, Pallet A and Faust SN. Prescribing for children – taste and palatability affect adherence to antibiotics: a review Archives of Disease in Childhood 2012;97:293-297
10. Falagas ME, Karagiannis AKA, Nakouti T, Tansarli GS. Compliance with Once-Daily versus Twice or Thrice-Daily Administration of Antibiotic Regimens: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(1):e0116207. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116207.
11. Malhotra-Kumar S, Lammens C, Coenen S, Van Herck K, Goossens H. Effect of azithromycin and clarithromycin therapy on pharyngeal carriage of macrolide-resistant streptococci in healthy volunteers: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Lancet. 2007 Feb 10;369(9560):482-90.
12. Dancer SJ. Attention prescribers: be careful with antibiotics. Lancet. 2007 Feb 10;369(9560):442-3.
13. Bielicki JA, Barker CI, Saxena S, Wong IC, Long PF, Sharland M. Not too little, not too much: problems of selecting oral antibiotic dose for children. BMJ. 2015 Nov 3;351:h5447.
Click here to listen to a podcast on respiratory tract infections in children.
Most lower respiratory tract infections are of viral aetiology - consider bacterial pneumonia if persistent/recurrent fever over preceding 24-48 hours with chest wall recession and tachypnoea. Presence of generalised wheeze makes viral aetiology far more likely.
First line if antibiotics indicated: Amoxicillin bd for 5 days. Dose per actual body weight (40mg/kg bd (max 1g per dose)) or using age bands (3-11 months 250mg bd; 1-4 years: 500mg bd; 5-11 years: 750mg bd; ≥12 years: 1 gram bd)
If no response to amoxicillin, Co-amoxiclav tds for 5 days. For children 1-5 years: co-amoxiclav 125/31 5 ml tds; 6-11 years: co-amoxiclav 250/62 5 ml tds; 12-17 years: co-amoxiclav tablets (500/125mg) tds or co-amoxiclav 250/62 10 ml tds)
If allergic to penicillin: Azithromycin for 3 days. Dose per actual body weight (10mg/kg od) or using weight bands for children aged 6 months - 17 years (15-25kg: 200mg once daily; 26-35kg: 300mg once daily; 36-45kg: 400mg once daily; ≥46kg: 500mg once daily
Treatment for atypical infections should only be considered in severe infection if no response to first line empirical therapy: use Azithromycin for 3 days. Dose per actual body weight (10mg/kg od) or using weight bands for children aged 6 months - 17 years (15-25kg: 200mg once daily; 26-35kg: 300mg once daily; 36-45kg: 400mg once daily; ≥46kg: 500mg once daily)
If severe or complicated pneumonia (O² sats<85%, haemodynamic instability/septicaemia, immunocompromised, chronic lung disease, congenital hear disease, empyema, necrotising pneumonia), for urgent review in hospital - call paediatrician.
Treatment for atypical infections should only be considered in sever infection if no response to first line empirical therapy - use azithromycin.
Provide safety netting information (verbal and written) (under 1's) (over 1's).
Note: aim to use an antibiotic that minimises dosing frequency and is palatable (if suspension prescribed) to optimise adherence. QDS penicillin V and flucloxacillin suspensions are not well tolerated by children.
1. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/document-library/...
2. Vilas-Boas AL, Fontoura MS, Xavier-Souza G, AraĂºjo-Neto CA, Andrade SC, BrimRV, Noblat L, Barral A, Cardoso MR, Nascimento-Carvalho CM; PNEUMOPAC-Efficacy Study Group. Comparison of oral amoxicillin given thrice or twice daily to children between 2 and 59 months old with non-severe pneumonia: a randomized controlled trial. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014 Jul;69(7):1954-9.
3. Fonseca W, Hoppu K, Rey LC, Amaral J, Qazi S. Comparing pharmacokinetics of amoxicillin given twice or three times per day to children older than 3 months with pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003 Mar;47(3):997-1001.
4. Daschner FD, Behre U, Dalhoff A. Prospective clinical trial on the efficacy of amoxycillin administered twice or four times daily in children with respiratory tract infections. J Int Med Res. 1981;9(4):274-6.
5. WHO - Guidelines for the management of common childhood illnesses. http://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/docum...
6. Baguley D, Lim E, Bevan A, Pallet A and Faust SN. Prescribing for children – taste and palatability affect adherence to antibiotics: a review Archives of Disease in Childhood 2012;97:293-297
7. Falagas ME, Karagiannis AKA, Nakouti T, Tansarli GS. Compliance with Once-Daily versus Twice or Thrice-Daily Administration of Antibiotic Regimens: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(1):e0116207. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116207.
8. Malhotra-Kumar S, Lammens C, Coenen S, Van Herck K, Goossens H. Effect of azithromycin and clarithromycin therapy on pharyngeal carriage of macrolide-resistant streptococci in healthy volunteers: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Lancet. 2007 Feb 10;369(9560):482-90.
9. Dancer SJ. Attention prescribers: be careful with antibiotics. Lancet. 2007 Feb 10;369(9560):442-3.
10. Bielicki JA, Barker CI, Saxena S, Wong IC, Long PF, Sharland M. Not too little, not too much: problems of selecting oral antibiotic dose for children. BMJ. 2015 Nov 3;351:h5447.
Generally, Abs are not required as 80% resolve within 14 days without Tx (NNT 15). Offer adequate analgesia.
Consider treating if most of the following are present:
First line: if no previous treatment in preceding 4 weeks, Amoxicillin bd for 5 days. Dose per actual body weight (40mg/kg bd (max 1g per dose)) or using age bands (3-11 months: 250mg bd; 1 year - 4 years: 500mg bd; 5-11 years: 750mg bd >12 years: 1 gram bd)
For children ≥12 years of age consider prescribing high-dose nasal corticosteroids (equivalent to mometasone 400 micrograms a day) for 14 to 21 days instead of antibiotics.
If treatment with amoxicillin in preceding 4 weeks: Co-amoxiclav tds for 5 days. For children 1 years - 5 years: co-amoxiclav 125/31 5 ml tds; 6-11 years: co-amoxiclav 250/62 5 ml tds; 12-17 years: co-amoxiclav tablets (500/125mg) tds or co-amoxiclav 250/62 10 ml tds)
If allergic to penicillin: Azithromycin for 3 days. Dose per actual body weight (10mg/kg od) or using weight bands for children aged 6 months - 17 years (15-25kg: 200mg once daily; 26-35kg: 300mg once daily; 36-45kg: 400mg once daily; ≥46kg: 500mg once daily)
Note: aim to use an antibiotic that minimises doing frequency and is palatable (if suspension prescribed) to optimise adherence. QDS penicillin V and flucloxacillin suspensions are not well tolerated by children. It can sometimes be challenging for children to swallow large volumes of suspensions. Most school age children (from above 4 years of age) can be taught to swallow tablets. The following website provides great information for parents on teaching their child to swallow tablets - www.pillswallowing.com
1. Vilas-Boas AL, Fontoura MS, Xavier-Souza G, AraĂºjo-Neto CA, Andrade SC, BrimRV, Noblat L, Barral A, Cardoso MR, Nascimento-Carvalho CM; PNEUMOPAC-Efficacy Study Group. Comparison of oral amoxicillin given thrice or twice daily to children between 2 and 59 months old with non-severe pneumonia: a randomized controlled trial. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014 Jul;69(7):1954-9.
2. Fonseca W, Hoppu K, Rey LC, Amaral J, Qazi S. Comparing pharmacokinetics of amoxicillin given twice or three times per day to children older than 3 months with pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003 Mar;47(3):997-1001.
3. Daschner FD, Behre U, Dalhoff A. Prospective clinical trial on the efficacy of amoxycillin administered twice or four times daily in children with respiratory tract infections. J Int Med Res. 1981;9(4):274-6.
4. WHO - Guidelines for the management of common childhood illnesses. http://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/docum...
5. Baguley D, Lim E, Bevan A, Pallet A and Faust SN. Prescribing for children – taste and palatability affect adherence to antibiotics: a review Archives of Disease in Childhood 2012;97:293-297
6. Falagas ME, Karagiannis AKA, Nakouti T, Tansarli GS. Compliance with Once-Daily versus Twice or Thrice-Daily Administration of Antibiotic Regimens: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(1):e0116207. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116207.
7. Malhotra-Kumar S, Lammens C, Coenen S, Van Herck K, Goossens H. Effect of azithromycin and clarithromycin therapy on pharyngeal carriage of macrolide-resistant streptococci in healthy volunteers: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Lancet. 2007 Feb 10;369(9560):482-90.
8. Dancer SJ. Attention prescribers: be careful with antibiotics. Lancet. 2007 Feb 10;369(9560):442-3.
9. Bielicki JA, Barker CI, Saxena S, Wong IC, Long PF, Sharland M. Not too little, not too much: problems of selecting oral antibiotic dose for children. BMJ. 2015 Nov 3;351:h5447.
10. NICE guideline – sinusitis (acute): antimicrobial prescribing (2017). www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng79
Most young children presenting with tonsillitis have a viral aetiology. No significant difference in pain score at day 3 in children treated with antibiotics compared to those treated with placebo (Cochrane review 2013). Need to treat >4000 children with antibiotics to prevent one case of quinsy.
Most children with tonsillitis do not require a throat swab.
Base decision to treat on FeverPAIN score (1 point for each of Fever, Purulence, Attend within 3 days of onset or less, severely Inflamed tonsils, No cough or coryza):
NOTE: if a child's symptoms are worsening after 3 days, think about other differentials including a peritonsillar abscess (quinsy) or Lemierre syndrome (Fusobacterium).
For children unable to swallow tablets; amoxicillin 40mg/kg bd (max 1g per dose) for 7 days. Dose per actual body weight (40mg/kg bd (max 1g per dose)) or using age bands (3-11 months: 250mg bd; 1 year - 4 years: 500mg bd; 5-11 years: 750mg bd; >12 years: 1 gram bd).
Although there has been great anxiety about prescribing amoxicillin in patients with tonsillitis due to the risk of adverse events associated with EBV, there is considerable data to suggest that the use of amoxicillin does not significantly increase the risk of rash in acute EBV – see https://adc.bmj.com/content/101/5/500 . In addition, data suggests that EBV accounts for as little as 1% of tonsillitis presenting to doctors - see https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17904463 and more importantly, EBV is extremely rare prior in children below 12 years of age. For this reason, the current recommendation is to use amoxicillin suspension in young children (palatability) and penicillin V tablets for children able to swallow tablets (due to higher rates of EBV in this age group).
For children able to swallow tablets; ; if age 1-5 years Penicillin V 250mg 12 hourly; 6-12 years Penicillin V, 500mg 12 hourly; if age >12 years, Penicillin V 1g 12 hourly for 7 days.
If allergic to penicillin: Azithromycin for 5 days. Dose per actual body weight (10mg/kg od) or using weight bands for children aged 6 months - 17 years (15-25kg: 200mg once daily; 26-35kg: 300mg once daily; 36-45kg: 400mg once daily; ≥46kg: 500mg once daily)
1. NICE, Sore throat (acute): antimicrobial prescribing. [NG 84] January 2018 https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng84 Date accessed June 2018
2. Spinks A, Glasziou PP, Del Mar CB. Antibiotics for sore throat. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013; (11): CD000023. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24190439
3. Little P, Williamson I, Warner G, Gould C, Gantley M, Kinmonth AL. Open randomised trial of prescribing strategies in managing sore throat. BMJ. 1997; 314(7082): 722-7. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9116551
4. Petersen I, Johnson AM, Islam A, Duckworth G, Livermore DM, Hayward AC. Protective effect of antibiotics against serious complications of common respiratory tract infections: retrospective cohort study with the UK General Practice Research Database. BMJ. 2007; 335(7627): 982. http://www.bmj.com/content/335/7627/982
5. Little P, Stuart B, Hobbs FD, Butler CC, Hay AD, Campbell J, et al. Predictors of suppurative complications for acute sore throat in primary care: prospective clinical cohort study. BMJ. 2013; 347: f6867. http://www.bmj.com/content/347/bmj.f6867
6. Falagas ME, Vouloumanou EK, Matthaiou DK, Kapaskelis AM, Karageorgopoulos DE. Effectiveness and safety of short-course vs long-course antibiotic therapy for group a beta hemolytic streptococcal tonsillopharyngitis: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Mayo Clin Proc. 2008; 83(8): 880-9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18674472
7. Lan AJ, Colford JM, Colford JM, Jr. The impact of dosing frequency on the efficacy of 10-day penicillin or amoxicillin therapy for streptococcal tonsillopharyngitis: A meta-analy http://adc.bmj.com/content/101/5/500sis. Pediatrics. 2000; 105(2): E19. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10654979
8. Chovel-Senna A et al. Incidence of Rash After Amoxicillin Treatment in Children With Infectious Mononucleosis. Pediatrics. 2013 May;131(5):e1424-7
9. Chew C, Goenka A. QUESTION 2: Does amoxicillin exposure increase the risk of rash in children with acute Epstein-Barr virus infection? Arch Dis Child. 2016; 101(5): 500-2 . http://adc.bmj.com/content/101/5/500
10. Worrall GJ. Acute sore throat. Can Fam Physician. 2007 Nov; 53(11): 1961–1962.
11. Vilas-Boas AL, Fontoura MS, Xavier-Souza G, AraĂºjo-Neto CA, Andrade SC, BrimRV, Noblat L, Barral A, Cardoso MR, Nascimento-Carvalho CM; PNEUMOPAC-Efficacy Study Group. Comparison of oral amoxicillin given thrice or twice daily to children between 2 and 59 months old with non-severe pneumonia: a randomized controlled trial. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014 Jul;69(7):1954-9.
12. Fonseca W, Hoppu K, Rey LC, Amaral J, Qazi S. Comparing pharmacokinetics of amoxicillin given twice or three times per day to children older than 3 months with pneumonia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003 Mar;47(3):997-1001.
13. Daschner FD, Behre U, Dalhoff A. Prospective clinical trial on the efficacy of amoxycillin administered twice or four times daily in children with respiratory tract infections. J Int Med Res. 1981;9(4):274-6.
14. WHO - Guidelines for the management of common childhood illnesses. http://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/docum...
15. Baguley D, Lim E, Bevan A, Pallet A and Faust SN. Prescribing for children – taste and palatability affect adherence to antibiotics: a review Archives of Disease in Childhood 2012;97:293-297
16. Falagas ME, Karagiannis AKA, Nakouti T, Tansarli GS. Compliance with Once-Daily versus Twice or Thrice-Daily Administration of Antibiotic Regimens: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(1):e0116207. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116207.
17. Malhotra-Kumar S, Lammens C, Coenen S, Van Herck K, Goossens H. Effect of azithromycin and clarithromycin therapy on pharyngeal carriage of macrolide-resistant streptococci in healthy volunteers: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Lancet. 2007 Feb 10;369(9560):482-90.
18. Dancer SJ. Attention prescribers: be careful with antibiotics. Lancet. 2007 Feb 10;369(9560):442-3.
19. Bielicki JA, Barker CI, Saxena S, Wong IC, Long PF, Sharland M. Not too little, not too much: problems of selecting oral antibiotic dose for children. BMJ. 2015 Nov 3;351:h5447.
<3 months of age:
Treat as pyelonephritis (needs review in hospital) - call paediatrician .
>3 months of age with lower UTI/cystitis:
Trimethoprim bd for 3 days. Dose per actual body weight (4mg/kg bd (max 200mg/dose) or using age bands (6 weeks - 5 months: 25 mg twice daily; 6 months - 5 years: 50mg twice daily; 6 - 11 years 100mg twice daily; 12 - 17 years: 200mg twice daily).
If previous treatment with trimethoprim in preceding 3 months use Nitrofurantoin for 3 days if able to swallow tablets (immediate release 750mcg/kg qds or if 12 - 17 years 100mg m/r bd) OR Cefalexin tds for 3 days. Dose per actual body weight (12.5mg/kg 8 hourly (max 1g per dose)) or using age bands (3-11 months: 125mg tds, 1 year - 4 years: 250mg tds, 5-11 years 500mg tds, ≥12 years: 1 gram tds). If confirmed severe penicillin allergy and unable to swallow nitrofurantoin tablets use Ciprofloxacin 10mg/kg bd (max 750mg bd).
>3 months of age with upper UTI/pyelonephritis (all children with a febrile UTI should be considered to have pyelonephritis):
Duration of antibiotic course 7 days: treat empirically with Cefalexin 12.5mg/kg 8 hourly for 7 days unless unable to tolerate oral antibiotics or systemically unwell (suggestive of bacteraemia); if so, urgent referral to hospital. Dose per actual body weight (12.5mg/kg 8 hourly (max 1g per dose)) or using age bands (3-11 months: 125mg tds, 1 year - 4 years: 250mg tds, 5-11 years: 500mg tds, ≥12 years: 1 gram tds). It confirmed severe penicillin allergy: Ciprofloxacin 10mg/kg bd (max 750mg bd).
If unable to tolerate oral Abs or systemically unwell (suggestive of bacteraemia), requires review in hospital for consideration of IV antibiotics - call paediatrician.
Provide safety netting information (verbal and written)
QuickWee method of stimulating suprapubic area with saline-soaked gauze significantly reduces the time taken to successfully collect a urine sample in infants.
1. NICE. Urinary Tract Infection in Children 2007. (Clinical Guideline 54). http://www.nice.org.uk/CG54 (Accessed Jan 2018)
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